lunes, 14 de noviembre de 2016

LINGUISTICS UNIT 5

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS FOR UNIT V

Lingüística Moderna/Modern Linguistics

LINGÜÍSTICA MODERNA: La lingüística moderna tiene su comienzo en el siglo XIX con las actividades de los conocidos como neogramáticos, que, gracias al descubrimiento del sánscrito, pudieron comparar las lenguas y reconstruir una supuesta lengua original, el protoindoeuropeo (que no es una lengua real, sino una reconstrucción teórica).
No será, sin embargo, hasta la publicación póstuma del libro Curso de lingüística general (1916), del suizo Ferdinand de Saussure, que se convierte la lingüística en una ciencia integrada en una disciplina más amplia, la semiología, que a su vez forma parte de la psicología social, y defina su objeto de estudio. La distinción entre lengua (el sistema) y habla (el uso) y la definición de signo lingüístico (significado y significante) han sido fundamentales para el desarrollo posterior de la nueva ciencia. Sin embargo, su perspectiva —conocida como estructuralista y que podemos calificar, por oposición a corrientes posteriores, como de corte empirista— será puesta en cuestión en el momento en que ya había dado la mayor parte de sus frutos y por lo tanto sus limitaciones quedaban más de relieve.
MODERN LINGUISTICS: The modern linguistics has its beginning in the nineteenth century with the activities of so-called Neogrammarians, which, thanks to the discovery of Sanskrit, could compare the languages ​​and reconstruct a supposed original language, Proto (which is not a real language but a theoretical reconstruction).
It will not, however, until the posthumous publication of the book Course in General Linguistics (1916), the Swiss Ferdinand de Saussure, that language becomes integrated into a broader discipline science, semiotics, which in turn is part social psychology, and define its subject. The distinction between language (the system) and speech (use) and the definition of linguistic sign (signifier and signified) have been instrumental in the further development of the new science. However, their perspective, known as structuralist and we can qualify, as opposed to later currents, as empiricist cut will be called into question by the time he had already given most of its fruits and therefore their limitations were over relief.




Ferdinand De Saussure (Biography)

Ferdinand de Saussure
Swiss linguist

Born
November 26, 1857
Geneva, Switzerland
Died
February 22, 1913
Vufflens-le-Château, Switzerland
Ferdinand de Saussure,  (born Nov. 26, 1857, Geneva, Switz.—died Feb. 22, 1913, Vufflens-le-Château), Swiss linguist whose ideas on structure in language laid the foundation for much of the approach to and progress of the linguistic sciences in the 20th century.

While still a student, Saussure established his reputation with a brilliant contribution to comparative linguistics, Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européennes (1878; “Memoir on the Original System of Vowels in the Indo-European Languages”). In it he explained how the knottiest of vowel alternations in Indo-European, those of a, take place. Though he wrote no other book, he was enormously influential as a teacher, serving as instructor at the École des Hautes Études (“School of Advanced Studies”) in Paris from 1881 to 1891 and as professor of Indo-European linguistics and Sanskrit (1901–11) and of general linguistics (1907–11) at the University of Geneva. His name is affixed, however, to the Cours de linguistique générale (1916; Course in General Linguistics), a reconstruction of his lectures on the basis of notes by students carefully prepared by his junior colleagues Charles Bally and Albert Séchehaye. The publication of his work is considered the starting point of 20th-century structural linguistics.

Saussure contended that language must be considered as a social phenomenon, a structured system that can be viewed synchronically (as it exists at any particular time) and diachronically (as it changes in the course of time). He thus formalized the basic approaches to language study and asserted that the principles and methodology of each approach are distinct and mutually exclusive. He also introduced two terms that have become common currency in linguistics—“parole,” or the speech of the individual person, and “langue,” the system underlying speech activity. His distinctions proved to be mainsprings to productive linguistic research and can be regarded as starting points on the avenue of linguistics known as structuralism.



Ferdinand de Saussure
Lingüista suizo

Nacido
26 de noviembre 1857
Ginebra, Suiza
Murió
22 de febrero 1913
Vufflens-le-Château, Suiza
Ferdinand de Saussure, (nacido el 26 de noviembre 1857, fallecido Switz.-Ginebra, 22 de febrero 1913, Vufflens-le-Château), lingüista suizo cuyas ideas sobre la estructura de la lengua sentó las bases para gran parte del enfoque y la marcha de las ciencias lingüísticas en el siglo 20.

Cuando todavía era estudiante, Saussure estableció su reputación con una brillante contribución a la lingüística comparada, Mémoire sur le système primitif des Voyelles dans les langues indo-européennes (1878; "Memoria sobre el sistema original de vocales en las lenguas indoeuropeas"). En él se explica cómo el knottiest de alternancias vocálicas en indoeuropeo, los de una, tienen lugar. Aunque él escribió ningún otro libro, que era enormemente influyente como profesor, que actúa como instructor en la Escuela de Altos Estudios ("Escuela de Estudios Avanzados") en París 1881 a 1891 y como profesor de lingüística indoeuropea y sánscrito (1901 -11) y de la lingüística general (1907-11) de la Universidad de Ginebra. Su nombre se fija, sin embargo, para el Curso de lingüística general (1916; Curso de lingüística general), una reconstrucción de sus conferencias sobre la base de las notas de los estudiantes cuidadosamente preparados por sus colegas más jóvenes Charles Bally y Albert Sechehaye. La publicación de su obra se considera el punto de partida de la lingüística estructural del siglo 20.

Saussure sostuvo que el lenguaje debe ser considerado como un fenómeno social, un sistema estructurado que se puede ver sincrónicamente (tal como existe en un momento dado) y diacrónicamente (ya que los cambios en el transcurso del tiempo). Él por lo tanto formalizó los enfoques básicos para el estudio de idiomas y afirmó que los principios y la metodología de cada enfoque son distintas y mutuamente excluyentes. También introdujo dos términos que se han convertido en moneda corriente en linguistics- "libertad condicional", o el discurso de la persona individual, y "langue", la actividad discurso subyacente del sistema. Sus distinciones demostraron ser resortes a la investigación lingüística productiva y pueden ser considerados como puntos de partida en la avenida de la lingüística conocido como estructuralismo.
Noam Chomsky (Biography)







Noam Chomsky (Biography)
Early Life and Education:
Avram Noam Chomsky was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1928. Both his parents were prominent Hebrew scholars. He entered the University of Pennsylvania in 1945, where he achieved a bachelor’s degree in linguistics in 1949, a master’s degree in 1951, and later earned his doctorate in 1955.

Contributions and Achievements:
Noam Chomsky became a member of the faculty of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and performed his services at MIT as a visiting professor. Influenced by the ideas of his mentor, Zellig Harris, Chomsky published his famous work, “Syntactic Structures”, in 1957. During that era, concepts regarding the origin of language were inspired by behaviorist ideas, for instance those of renowned Swedish psychologist B. F. Skinner, who advocated that newborn babies had a blank mind (tabula rasa) and that children acquired language by means of learning and mimicry.
Chomsky rejected that belief and argued that human beings were in fact born with the innate ability to realize the generative grammars that constitute every human language. Children make use of this innate ability to learn the languages that they are exposed to.
Chomsky established his linguistic theory in 1965 with “Aspects of the Theory of Syntax”, and in 1975, with “The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory”. Later works in cognitive science supported his claims. The influence of Chomsky on linguistics is similar to that of Charles Darwin on evolution and biology. His ideas have significant logical implications for various subjects of psychology, and also extends to cognitive science, anthropology, sociology and neurology.




Noam Chomsky (Biography)

Temprana edad y educación:
Avram Noam Chomsky nació en Filadelfia, Pensilvania, en 1928. Sus padres eran eruditos hebreos prominentes. Entró en la Universidad de Pennsylvania en 1945, donde obtuvo una licenciatura en lingüística en 1949, una maestría en 1951, y más tarde obtuvo su doctorado en 1955.

Contribuciones y Logros:
Noam Chomsky se convirtió en un miembro de la facultad del Instituto de Tecnología de Massachusetts y realiza sus servicios en el MIT como profesor visitante. Influenciado por las ideas de su mentor, Zellig Harris, Chomsky publicó su famosa obra, "Estructuras sintácticas", en 1957. Durante esa época, conceptos sobre el origen del lenguaje se inspiraron en las ideas conductistas, por ejemplo los de renombrado psicólogo sueco BF Skinner , quien abogó por que los bebés recién nacidos tenían la mente en blanco (tabula rasa) y que los niños adquirido el lenguaje por medio del aprendizaje y la imitación.
Chomsky rechazó esa creencia y argumentó que los seres humanos eran, de hecho, nace con la habilidad innata para darse cuenta de las gramáticas generativas que constituyen cada lenguaje humano. Los niños hacen uso de esta capacidad innata para aprender las lenguas que están expuestos.
Chomsky estableció su teoría lingüística en 1965 con "Aspectos de la teoría de la sintaxis", y en 1975, con "la estructura lógica de la teoría lingüística". Trabajos posteriores en la ciencia cognitiva apoyan sus afirmaciones. La influencia de Chomsky sobre lingüística es similar a la de Charles Darwin sobre la evolución y la biología. Sus ideas tienen implicaciones lógicas significativas para diversos temas de la psicología, y también se extiende a la ciencia cognitiva, la antropología, la sociología y la neurología.
CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS FOR UNIT IV


Semántica Estructuralista/ Structuralist Semantics
Semántica Estructuralista: Es el estudio de las relaciones entre los significados de términos dentro de una oración, y cómo el significado puede estar compuesta de elementos más pequeños

Structuralist Semantics:   Is the study of relationships between the meanings of terms within a sentence, and how meaning can be composed from smaller elements.


Semántica Generativista/Generativist Semantics
Semántica Generativista: en la teoría lingüística generativa, la semántica es el componente de la gramática que interpreta la significación de los enunciados generados por la sintaxis y el léxico. Concibe las representaciones semánticas como la auténtica estructura profunda de las oraciones.

Generativist Semantics: in generative linguistic theory, semantics is the component of grammar that interprets the significance of the statements generated by the syntax and vocabulary .

 Semantic representations conceived as authentic deep structure of sentences.
CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS FOR UNIT III


Subsistemas lingüísticos/Linguistics sub-systems

Sub-sistemas lingüísticos: los idiomas se estudian a menudo en términos de sub-sistemas, que se refieren a los principales sub-campos dentro de la lingüística, suelen llamarse planos lingüísticos: el fónico, el gramatical o morfosintáctico y el léxico-semántico.
Linguistics sub-systems: languages ​​are often studied in terms of sub - systems , which refer to the main sub - fields within the language , often called linguistic levels: phonetic , morphosyntactic or grammatical and lexical-semantic .



Fonológico/Fonological
Fonológico: Es un fenómeno natural de las lenguas por las cuales unos sonidos influyen sobre otros, y se provocan cambios en la articulación o sonido en un determinado contexto sonoro o se producen reestructuraciones del sistema fonológico.

Phonological: It is a natural phenomenon by which languages ​​influence other sounds, and cause changes in the joint or sound in a particular context or sound occurring phonological system restructuring.



Sintáctico/Sintactical
 

Sintáctico: función sintáctica se llama a la función de una palabra,  morfema o construcción sintáctica que incluye; o más precisamente, la relación de combinación o relaciones sintagmáticas que una palabra tiene con otras palabras en su contexto.

Sintactical: syntactic function is called to the role a Word or morpheme or syntactic construction that includes or, more precisely, the relations of combination or syntagmatic relations that a word has with other words in context.




Semántica/Semantical

Semántica: Es el estudio del significado. Se centra en la relación entre significantes, como palabras, frases, signos y símbolos, y lo que representa su denotación
SEMANTICAL: Is the study of meaning. It focuses on the relation between signifiers, like words, phrases, signs, and symbols, and what they stand for, their denotation


UNIDADES LINGÜÍSTICAS DE ANÁLISIS/LINGUISTICAL ANALYSIS UNITS
Las Unidades lingüísticas se estructuran en niveles: Fónico son los fonemas y sonidos. Las oraciones están compuestas por una sucesión de fonemas o de sonidos que van constituyendo cada una de las palabras. El fonema es la unidad mínima de la lengua, se trata de una unidad carente de significado, pero con unos rasgos distintivos Hay dos tipos vocálicos y consonánticos. El morfosintáctico engloba dos niveles: la morfología q estudia la forma de las unidades dotadas de significado y la sintaxis q estudia la combinación de las unidades lingüísticas entre sí. Las palabras se combinan formando sintagmas y oraciones. El léxico semántico q estudia todos los fenómenos relacionados con el ámbito del significado del signo lingüístico. La lexicología se ocupa de la formación de palabras en una lengua y la semántica se ocupa del análisis del significado de las palabras.

LINGUISTICAL ANALYSIS UNITS
Linguistic Units are divided into levels: Phonic are phonemes and sounds. Sentences are composed of a sequence of phonemes or sounds ranging constituting each of the words. The phoneme is the smallest unit of language, it is a meaningless unit, but with distinctive vowel and consonant. There are two types. The morphosyntactic encompasses two levels: q morphology studies the shape of the units with meaning and syntax q study combination of linguistic units together. Words combine to form phrases and sentences. Q The semantic lexicon studies all phenomena related to the scope of the meaning of the linguistic sign. Lexicology deals with the formation of words in a language and semantics deals with the analysis of the meaning of words.


Descripción/Description
Description: A statement or account that describes representation in words.

Descripción: Una declaración o cuenta que describe una representación en palabras.
Prescription: The act of establishing official rules, laws, or directions.

Prescripción: el acto de establecer reglas oficiales, leyes o direcciones.
CONCEPTS UNIT 2

Yo/Self
A person's essential being that distinguishes them from others, especially considered as the object of introspection or reflexive action.

El yo es la esencia de una persona que lo distingue de los demás, considera especialmente como el objeto de la introspección o la acción reflexiva.

Grupo/Group
A group is a number of things or persons being in some relation to one another.
Un grupo es un número de cosas o personas que comparten una relación unos con otros.

Sociedad/Society
A society, or a human society, is a group of people related to each other through persistent relations, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or virtual territory, subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations.
Una sociedad o una sociedad humana, es un grupo de gente relacionados entre sí a través de las relaciones persistentes, o un gran grupo social que comparten los mismos territorios geográficos o virtuales, con sujeción a la misma autoridad política y las expectativas culturales dominantes.
Convención/Convention
General agreement or consent; accepted usage, especially as a standard of procedure. An agreement, compact, or contract.
Acuerdo o consentimiento general; aceptando el uso, especialmente como un estándar de procedimiento. Un convenio, acuerdo o contrato.

Conducta/Behavior
Behavior or behaviour is the range of actions and mannerisms made by organisms, systems, or artificial entities in conjunction with themselves or their environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around as well as the (inanimate) physical environment.
Comportamiento o conducta es el conjunto de acciones y gestos realizados por los organismos, sistemas o entidades artificiales en conjunto con ellos mismos o su entorno, que incluye a los otros sistemas u organismos de todo, así como la (inanimado) entorno físico.
Conocimiento/Knowledge
Knowledge is a familiarity, awareness or understanding of someone or something, such s facts, information, descriptions, or skills, which is acquired through experience or education by perceiving, discovering, or learning.
El conocimiento es la conciencia o entendimiento de alguien o de algo, Como hechos , información , descripciones , o habilidades , que se adquiere a través de la experiencia o la educación por percibir , descubrir o aprender .
Cognoscitivismo/Cognoscitivism
Cognitivists argued that the way people think impacts their behavior and therefore cannot be a behavior in and of itself.
Cognitivistas argumentaron que la forma de pensar afecta a su comportamiento y por lo tanto no puede ser un comportamiento en sí mismo.
Constructivismo/Constructivism
Constructivism is a theory of knowledge that argues that humans generate knowledge and meaning from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas.
El constructivismo es una teoría del conocimiento que sostiene que los seres humanos generan conocimiento y el significado de una interacción entre sus experiencias y sus ideas.
Idiomas/Languages
It is the human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communication, and a language is any specific example of such a system. The scientific study of language is called linguistics.
Es la capacidad humana para adquirir y utilizar sistemas complejos de comunicación y una lengua es ningún ejemplo específico de un sistema de este tipo. El estudio científico del lenguaje se llama la lingüística.


Dialecto/Dialects
A particular form of a language that is peculiar to a specific region or social group.
Una forma particular de un lenguaje que es propio de una región específica o un grupo social.

Gramática tradicional/Traditional Grammar
A traditional grammar is a framework for the description of the structure of a language. Traditional grammars are commonly used in language education.
Una gramática tradicional es un marco para la descripción de la estructura de un idioma. Gramáticas tradicionales se utilizan comúnmente en la enseñanza de idiomas

Estructuralismo/Structuralism
Structuralism is a theoretical paradigm in sociology, anthropology, linguistics and semiotics positing that elements of human culture must be understood in terms of their relationship to a larger, overarching system or structure.
El estructuralismo es un paradigma teórico de la sociología, la antropología, la lingüística y la semiótica que postulan que los elementos de la cultura humana deben ser entendidos en términos de su relación con un sistema o estructura global más grande

Generativismo/Generativism
It is a model of grammar which has some specific rules and principles so that the speaker can understand , speak and cause all the prayers of their own language.
Es un modelo de gramática que tiene unas reglas y principios específicos para que el hablante pueda comprender, hablar y producir todas las oraciones de su propia lengua.

Fucionalaismo/funcionalism
Functionalism is characterized by utilitarianism awarded to actions that must sustain the established order in society , is a theoretical current that emerged in England in the 1930s in the social sciences , especially in sociology and social anthropology
El funcionalismo es caracterizado por el utilitarismo otorgado a las acciones que deben sostener el orden establecido en las sociedades, es una corriente teórica surgida en Inglaterra en los años 1930 en las ciencias sociales, especialmente en sociología y también de antropología social.

Indivíduo/Individual or being

An individual is a person or a specific object. / Un individuo es una persona o un objeto especifico.

lunes, 31 de octubre de 2016

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS 

1.- LINGUISTICS.
Each human language is a complex of knowledge and abilities enabling speakers of the language to communicate with each other, to express ideas, hypotheses, emotions, desires, and all the other things that need expressing. Linguistics is the study of these knowledge systems in all their aspects: how is such a knowledge system structured, how is it acquired, how is it used in the production and comprehension of messages, how does it change over time? Linguists consequently are concerned with a number of particular questions about the nature of language

2. - SEMIOTICS.
The study of signs and symbols as elements of communicative behavior; the analysis of systems of communication, as language, gestures, or clothing.

3.- Campos en que se divide la Lingüística./Branches of Linguistics
1. General linguistic generally describes the concepts and categories of a particular language or among all language. It also provides analyzed theory of the language.
Descriptive linguistic describes or gives the data to confirm or refute the theory of particular language explained generally.
2. Micro linguistic is narrower view. It is concerned internal view of language itself (structure of language systems) without related to other sciences and without related how to apply it in daily life. Some fields of micro linguistic:
a. Phonetics, the study of the physical properties of sounds of human language
b. Phonology, the study of sounds as discrete, abstract elements in the speaker's mind that distinguish meaning
c. Morphology, the study of internal structures of words and how they can be modified
d. Syntax, the study of how words combine to form grammatical sentences
e. Semantics, the study of the meaning of words (lexical semantics) and fixed word combinations (phraseology), and how these combine to form the meanings of sentences
f. Pragmatics, the study of how utterances are used (literally, figuratively, or otherwise) in communicative acts
g. Discourse analysis, the analysis of language use in texts (spoken, written, or signed)
h. Applied linguistic is the branch of linguistic that is most concerned with application of the concepts in everyday life, including language-teaching.
3. Macro linguistic is broadest view of language. It is concerned external view of language itself with related to other sciences and how to apply it in daily life. Some fields of micro linguistic:
a. Stylistics, the study of linguistic factors that place a discourse in context.
b. Developmental linguistics, the study of the development of linguistic ability in an individual, particularly the acquisition of language in childhood.
c. Historical linguistics or Diachronic linguistics, the study of language change.
d. Language geography, the study of the spatial patterns of languages.
e. Evolutionary linguistics, the study of the origin and subsequent development of language.
f. Psycholinguistics, the study of the cognitive processes and representations underlying language use.
g. Sociolinguistics, the study of social patterns and norms of linguistic variability.
h. Clinical linguistics, the application of linguistic theory to the area of Speech-Language Pathology.
i. Neurolinguistics, the study of the brain networks that underlie grammar and communication.
j. Biolinguistics, the study of natural as well as human-taught communication systems in animals compared to human language

4.- Auxiliary Sciences of Linguistics

Auxiliary Sciences of Linguistics: Numerous of the auxiliary sciences of linguistics. These include: 
Philosophy: philosophy of language is concerned with four central problems: the nature of meaning, language use, language cognition, and the relationship between language and reality. For continental philosophers, however, the philosophy of language tends to be dealt with, not as a separate topic, but as a part of logic.
Physics and Biology: The linguistic philosophy relates especially in the study of the nature of the sounds (Physical Acoustics). For similar reasons related to biology.
Geography: One of the most important auxiliary sciences of linguistics, because all tongues were born and evolved in certain geographical contexts.
Psychology: This is another of the auxiliary sciences of linguistics, as individuals, before talking with others to communicate their feelings, ideas, experiences, etc.., Think, "talk to himself". Human beings make use of linguistic signs as a material resource to communicate with others, if possible direct transmission of thought from one person to another, Linguistics would cease.
Anthropology and Sociology: Also important auxiliary sciences Linguistics. The first examines   the   man   and   his culture, the   second   man as   a   member of a group.


5.- Linguists.

-Noam Chomsky
American linguist, founder of generative grammar, the dominant paradigm in modern linguistics in the second half of the twentieth century. Language elements are use (specific spatiotemporal occurrences), but sentences (underlying abstract constructions uses), giving a mentalist concept of language. The grammar rules interpreted as generative system capable of producing a language.

Ferdinand de Saussure: (Geneva, Switzerland, November 26, 1857 - Ibid, February 22, 1913) was a Swiss linguist whose ideas helped to start and further development of the study of modern linguistics in the twentieth century. It is known as the father of twentieth-century linguistics. He also initiated the Geneva School, a group of linguists who continued his work. Despite this, many linguists and philosophers believe that their ideas were out of time.

Bloomfield: is inspired by mechanistic and behaviourist philosophy of language, performs an extensional definition, as a set of uses (concrete, individual act of speech), appearing as defined in terms of properties of the observable behavior of people.


6.- LANGUAGE.
Language: is a structured communication system for which there is a context of use and some formal combinatorial principles. There are both natural and artificialcontexts. The Human beings uses language that expresses complex sound sequences and graphic signs. The animals, in turn, communicate through sound signals and body, which man has not yet been deciphered, which in many casesare far from simple.

7. - THOUGHT.
Thought: is a psychological phenomenon rational, objective thinking and derived external to the solution of problems.

8. - THOUGHTS BASED IN LANGUAGE.
Thoughts based in languages: is that in which we think about meaning and visually associate the written word that represents it.

9. - THOUGHT NOT BASED IN LANGUAGE.
Thoughts not based in languages: is that in which we think about meaning and visually associate with the image.

10.- EVOLUTION.

 Is the branch of biology that refers to all changes that have led to the diversity of living         things       on      Earth,       from       its       origins         to         the         present.